How Many Crusades Were There

How Many Crusades Were There? Unpacking a Complex Historical Count

The question “how many Crusades were there?” seems like it should have a straightforward answer—a simple list, perhaps, from First to Ninth. Yet, any historian will tell you that the moment you begin to examine the medieval period, the clarity dissolves. The number is not fixed; it is a subject of ongoing debate, shaped by how one defines a “Crusade.” Was it only the great numbered expeditions to the Holy Land? Did it include smaller campaigns in Europe, political ventures called “crusades” by the Pope for different purposes, or even the so-called “People’s Crusades”? To understand the count, we must first understand the evolving concept of crusading itself. At its core, a Crusade was a papally-sanctioned, penitential holy war, offering spiritual rewards (the indulgence) to those who took part. This definition, however, was applied flexibly over centuries, making a definitive tally an exercise in historical interpretation rather than simple enumeration.

The Detailed Explanation: Defining the Indulgable War

To grasp why counting Crusades is complex, one must first understand the origins and expansion of the idea. The First Crusade (1095-1099) was a unique phenomenon: a spontaneous, popular response to Pope Urban II’s call at Clermont to aid the Byzantine Empire and liberate Jerusalem from Muslim rule. It was framed as an armed pilgrimage, a concept that merged the monastic ideal of pilgrimage with the knightly duty of warfare. The monumental success of this expedition, culminating in the capture of Jerusalem and the establishment of the Crusader States, set the template. The Church then sought to replicate this model, issuing formal calls for “crucesignati” (those signed with the cross) for specific, time-bound campaigns with defined objectives, primarily in the East.

However, the “Crusading Idea” quickly metastasized. The papacy realized the potent tool it possessed: a holy war that could mobilize the martial energies of Europe under spiritual authority. By the 13th century, the crusade was no longer exclusively an Eastern enterprise. Pope Innocent III and his successors authorized crusades against political enemies within Christendom—most famously the Albigensian Crusade (1209-1229) against the Cathar heresy in southern France. Later, campaigns against the Ottoman Turks in the Balkans, the Northern or Baltic Crusades against pagan peoples in modern-day Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, and even the brutal suppression of the Stedinger Crusade (1233-1234) in Germany were all granted the same plenary indulgence. Thus, a “Crusade” became any papally-approved war fought for a cause deemed spiritually meritorious, vastly expanding the historical roster beyond the Levant.

The Major numbered Crusades to the Holy Land (1095-1291)

When most people ask “how many Crusades?” they are referring to the primary expeditions from Western Europe to the Eastern Mediterranean aimed at defending or reclaiming the Holy Land. These are the traditionally numbered Crusades, though even here, scholars debate inclusions and boundaries.

1. The First Crusade (1096-1099): The foundational event. A massive, popular movement that captured Jerusalem and established the Crusader States (the County of Edessa, Principality of Antioch, County of Tripoli, and Kingdom of Jerusalem).
2. The Second Crusade (1147-1149): A direct response to the fall of the County of Edessa. Preached by St. Bernard of Clairvaux, it was a royal crusade led by Kings Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany. It ended in disastrous failure, notably the failed siege of Damascus.
3. The Third Crusade (1189-1192): The famous “Kings’ Crusade” after Saladin’s recapture of Jerusalem in 1187. Led by Richard I the Lionheart of England, Philip II Augustus of France, and Frederick I Barbarossa of the Holy Roman Empire (who drowned en route). It failed to retake Jerusalem but secured key coastal cities and a pilgrimage treaty.
4. The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204): Infamously diverted from its goal. Financed by Venice, it was diverted to Constantinople, which was brutally sacked in 1204. The crusaders established the short-lived Latin Empire of Constantinople, a catastrophic schism between Eastern and Western Christianity.
5. The Fifth Crusade (1217-1221): A strategic shift to Egypt, aiming to strike at the heart of Ayyubid power. It involved the capture of Damietta but ended in a failed advance on Cairo and a humiliating surrender.
6. The Sixth Crusade (1228-1229): The most unusual. Negotiated by the excommunicated Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, who traveled to the Holy Land and, through diplomacy with Sultan Al-Kamil, regained Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem for a brief period without fighting.
7. The Seventh Crusade (1248-1254): Led by King Louis IX of France (St. Louis), again targeting Egypt. It began with the capture of Damietta but ended in Louis’s capture at the Battle of Mansurah and a costly ransom.
8. The Eighth Crusade (1270): Also led by Louis IX, this time targeting Tunis in North Africa, likely for strategic or diplomatic reasons. It was cut short by Louis’s death from dysentery shortly after landing.
9. The Ninth Crusade (1271-1272): Often considered the last major crusade to the Holy Land. Led by Prince Edward (later Edward I of England), it involved small-scale operations in the Levant and ended with a truce. It is sometimes merged with the Eighth.

The Fall of Acre in 1291, the last major Crusader stronghold, is widely regarded as the end of the era of large-scale, organized crusades to the Holy Land.

Beyond the Nine: Other Major Crusading Campaigns

A strict count of “nine” ignores the vast ecosystem of crusading activity. To limit the history to these nine is to miss the full scope of the phenomenon.

• The People’s Crusades: The First Crusade itself was preceded by the disastrous People’s Crusade (1096) led by Peter the Hermit, which was annihilated in Anatolia. Similarly, the **Children’s

Crusades** of 1212, a tragic and likely exaggerated episode, saw thousands of children embark on a doomed journey to the Holy Land.

• The Albigensian Crusade (1209-1229): A brutal campaign in southern France against the Cathar heresy, sanctioned by the Church. It resulted in the establishment of the Inquisition and the complete subjugation of the region.

• The Baltic Crusades (1147-1525): A series of campaigns against pagan Slavs and Baltic peoples, lasting centuries. These were as much about territorial conquest and colonization as they were about religious conversion.

• The Reconquista (718-1492): The centuries-long Christian reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from Muslim rule. While often considered separately, it was deeply intertwined with crusading ideology and practice.

• Crusades Against the Ottoman Turks: After the fall of Acre, crusading rhetoric was used to rally Christian Europe against the rising Ottoman Empire. Major campaigns included the Crusade of Nicopolis (1396), the Crusade of Varna (1444), and the famous Siege of Belgrade (1456). The naval Battle of Lepanto (1571) was also framed as a crusading victory.

• Northern Crusades: Campaigns in Eastern Europe, such as the Wendish Crusade (1147) and the Prussian Crusades, were integral to the expansion of Christian kingdoms.

• Crusades in the West: The Church also sanctioned crusades against political enemies within Europe, such as the Crusade against Frederick II (1240-1241) or the Aragonese Crusade (1284-1285).

The legacy of the Crusades is complex and contested. They are remembered as a time of great piety and chivalry, but also of immense brutality, intolerance, and cultural destruction. The Crusades left a lasting impact on the political, religious, and cultural landscape of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa, shaping the relationship between Christianity and Islam for centuries to come. They are a stark reminder of the dangers of religious extremism and the devastating consequences of holy war.